Changes in nervous system responses in humans
Exposure to 3.5 GHz 5G signals led to a slight increase in head and neck skin temperature and minimal modulation of electrodermal activity, possibly indicating faster nervous system responses. These changes were within normal ranges but signal a need for more research (Jamal et al., 2024).

Molecular changes in brain tissue in mice
Repeated head exposure to 3.5 GHz 5G for 6 weeks caused mild alterations in gene expression, particularly in genes linked to neurotransmission and mitochondrial activity, though no behavioral changes were observed (Lameth et al., 2024).

Cellular stress responses in lab studies
In vitro experiments show potential stress responses in excitable cells (like neurons) when exposed to 5G signals, but the findings are still early-stage and need replication (Pisano et al., 2024).

EEG brainwave changes in humans
A systematic review noted that while most studies did not find negative effects on cognition or well-being, some reported changes in EEG alpha wave activity, suggesting subtle neurological influence from 5G exposure (Sofri et al., 2022).

Thermal effects on skin from millimeter waves
Modeling studies show that higher-frequency 5G signals primarily affect superficial skin layers, with heating effects that could be relevant under high exposure, though this remains below safety thresholds (Bailey et al., 2020), (Alameddine et al., 2022).

Calls for more long-term and interdisciplinary studies
Multiple papers emphasize that existing studies do not fully address long-term or constant exposure scenarios and recommend expanded research efforts across biology and physics (Effects of 5G wireless communication on human health, 2020).

Mild effects on nervous system and skin temperature in humans

A 2024 study exposed healthy individuals to 3.5 GHz 5G signals and found slight increases in head and neck skin temperature and minimal changes in electrodermal responses—though all were within normal physiological ranges and not conclusively harmful (Jamal et al., 2024).

Transcriptomic changes in mice from repeated head exposure to 3.5 GHz 5G
A 2024 animal study showed no behavioral or memory changes in mice exposed to 5G, but did detect small gene expression changes in the brain, especially in areas related to mitochondrial activity and neurotransmission (Lameth et al., 2024).

Potential modulation of cellular stress responses
Research involving 5G-targeted exposure systems found that real-time electrophysiology tools can detect subtle changes in cell stress responses under RF exposure, though findings are still preliminary (Pisano et al., 2024).

Repeated call for further in vitro and long-term studies

Reviews highlight that while no major risks have been confirmed, current data is insufficient for ruling out non-thermal effects like oxidative stress or gene modulation. These findings support the call for more rigorous and long-term biological assessments (Pisano et al., 2023), (Suresh et al., 2023).

Critique of regulatory standards and push for 5G moratorium
Some researchers argue current safety guidelines (ICNIRP) are too lenient because they only consider thermal effects and ignore other reported biological impacts. A series of studies call for a moratorium on 5G until more rigorous risk assessments are conducted (Hardell & Carlberg, 2021), (Hardell, 2021).

Overview of EMF effects on vegetation suggests potential for harm
A 2023 review highlights that RF and 5G waves may cause both thermal and non-thermal effects on biological organisms—including plants—due to their high water content. Potential effects include altered growth, impaired cellular function, and changes in protein synthesis, although evidence is still mostly extrapolated from animal studies (Şeker & Şimşek, 2023).

Honey bee study raises ecological concerns indirectly tied to plant pollination
While not focused on plants directly, a study using 5G frequency modeling on honey bees shows possible thermal absorption effects depending on wave direction and polarization. Since bees are crucial pollinators, disruptions to their behavior or survival could negatively impact plant reproduction and ecosystems (Jeladze et al., 2022).

General environmental concerns about electromagnetic pollution
Another review notes that due to 5G’s reliance on millimeter waves, more base stations will be required, increasing ambient EMF levels. This could affect not just animals but also trees and crops, which are highly sensitive to micro-environmental changes. However, this is a theoretical concern and not yet backed by experimental plant-specific data (Kerna et al., 2021).

Impact on Honey Bees – Implications for Plant Pollination
A simulation study using 5G frequencies (2.5–100 GHz) showed that certain RF conditions could cause dielectric heating in honey bees, potentially impairing their behavior and survival. Since bees are crucial pollinators, this could indirectly harm plant reproduction and food systems (Jeladze et al., 2022).

Review of EMF Effects on Vegetation
A comprehensive review reports both thermal and non-thermal biological effects of RF radiation on plants and vegetation, noting possible disruptions to cellular function, growth, and water absorption. Millimeter waves used in 5G are highlighted as particularly concerning due to their interaction with plant tissue water content (Şeker & Şimşek, 2023).

Policy report on EMF effects on ecosystems
A 2024 policy-focused study stresses that 5G may increase RF-EMF absorption in small organisms, including plants, due to surface-level energy penetration. European stakeholders in this survey supported further funding and monitoring of potential ecological impacts (Recuero Virto et al., 2024).

General environmental effects including trees
A broad review asserts that 5G radiation, particularly due to the close proximity of new small-cell base stations, could increase electromagnetic pollution, potentially affecting trees and plants due to higher surface absorption and oxidative stress, though experimental plant-specific data is still lacking (Kerna et al., 2021).

Oxidative stress in rats from 5G exposure
Rats exposed to multi-frequency RF fields including 3.5, 28, and 37 GHz (5G frequencies) showed imbalances in oxidative stress markers like diene conjugates and catalase. These changes reflect biological stress responses and altered antioxidant defense (Perov & Lifanova, 2024).

Cellular stress responses in human skin cells
Continuous 24-hour exposure to 3.5 GHz 5G signals triggered changes in heat shock protein activity and slightly impaired stress-induced responses in fibroblasts, although keratinocytes were less affected. This shows cell-type specific stress modulation (Joushomme et al., 2023).

DNA fragmentation and membrane damage in boar sperm
In vitro exposure of boar semen to 5G RF-EMR (700, 2500, 3500 MHz) significantly increased DNA fragmentation and sperm membrane damage, suggesting possible risks to reproductive health at cellular levels (Butković et al., 2024).

Mitochondrial and ROS effects in skin cells
A study on human skin cells exposed to 3.5 GHz 5G signals observed modest reductions in mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) in fibroblasts and increased sensitivity to UV-induced stress in keratinocytes (Patrignoni et al., 2023).

Transcriptomic alterations in mice brains
Mice exposed repeatedly to 3.5 GHz 5G for 6 weeks showed subtle changes in gene expression, particularly involving neurotransmission and mitochondrial genes—even though no behavioral differences were found (Lameth et al., 2024).

Concerns about biological tissue heating and shallow penetration
A broad review of EMF effects notes that 5G’s shallow penetration due to millimeter waves may disproportionately affect skin and eye tissues. Alterations in cell division and nervous system signaling are theorized, though more data is needed (Şeker & Şimşek, 2023).

Disruption of gut microbiota and metabolism in mice
Exposure to 4.9 GHz 5G for 1 hour/day over 3 weeks significantly altered gut microbial diversity and fecal metabolite profiles in mice, suggesting that 5G RF exposure may influence gut health and metabolism (Wang et al., 2024).

Neuroendocrine disruption in rats
Chronic 5G-like RF exposure (24/7 for 4 months) in rats led to elevated stress hormone levels (ACTH, corticosterone), indicating stress-related activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (Perov et al., 2022).

Oxidative stress in blood from 5G exposure
Rats exposed to 3.5–37 GHz RF showed altered levels of oxidative stress markers, including increased pro-oxidant concentrations and changes in antioxidant enzyme activity (Perov & Lifanova, 2024).

Altered mitochondrial stress responses in human skin cells
Human fibroblasts exposed to 3.5 GHz RF for 24 hours showed reduced mitochondrial ROS production and altered sensitivity to UV-induced damage, suggesting subtle shifts in oxidative stress handling (Patrignoni et al., 2023).

Stress-related molecular changes in skin cells
5G RF exposure influenced signaling proteins like HSF1, ERK, and PML in fibroblasts, although results were inconsistent across exposure types and cell lines (Joushomme et al., 2023).

Inhibition of neuronal activity in vitro
Neuronal cultures exposed to high specific absorption rates (SAR) of 3.5 GHz 5G signals showed suppressed neuronal firing and bursting, suggesting potential impacts on brain electrical signaling at high exposures (Canovi et al., 2023).

Comprehensive review of systemic biological effects
A review summarizes evidence that 5G RF may affect nervous, immune, cardiovascular, and reproductive systems, including potential genotoxic and oxidative effects across human and animal studies (Kerna et al., 2021).